DEVELOPMENT OF AN ULTRASOUND PHANTOM WITH MODIFIED VISCOSITY TO SIMULATE HUMAN SOFT TISSUE
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.59485/d7f2e938Keywords:
Ultrasonic Phantom, viscosity, PVA, 3D Printing, Medical CalibrationAbstract
The diagnostic accuracy and success of ultrasound-based intervention procedures depend heavily on the quality of device calibration and the expertise of medical personnel. The development of ultrasound phantoms that can realistically replicate the acoustic and mechanical properties of human soft tissue is a crucial requirement in medical education and the standardisation of electromedical technology. This study aims to develop and evaluate a method for producing soft tissue USG phantoms with modified viscosity and elasticity using polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) material, as well as integrating 3D printing technology to achieve anatomical accuracy. The phantoms were developed using a mixture of low and high viscosity PVA variants with the addition of ethylene glycol as a freeze-protectant. The fabrication process was carried out through a strictly controlled freeze-thaw cycle to manipulate the shear modulus and viscosity separately. Characterisation was performed through longitudinal sound velocity measurements (frequency 5–20 MHz), microstructure evaluation with a scanning electron microscope (SEM), and viscoelastic property testing using shear wave viscoelastography based on the Kelvin-Voigt model. The results show that the use of cryoprotectant produces a more homogeneous microstructure with a shear modulus of approximately 2.17 kPa and a viscosity of approximately 2.0 Pa · s, which is close to the physiological characteristics of human soft tissue. Acoustic parameters showed a sound velocity ranging from 1510–1571 m/s with an attenuation exponent of 1.23–1.38 dB/cm/MHz, meeting clinical range standards. The integration of natural fibres into the bio-elastomer matrix successfully created anisotropic properties resembling fibrous tissues such as muscle. The independent viscosity modification approach and the use of additive manufacturing provide a flexible platform for producing high- precision ultrasonic phantoms. This innovation supports the development of standardised and safe clinical intervention training tools, as well as reliable calibration instruments for the development of future imaging techniques such as elastography.
Keywords: Ultrasonic Phantom, viscosity, PVA, 3D Printing, Medical Calibration.
Downloads
References
1. Culjat M, Goldenberg D, Tewari P, Singh R. A review of tissue substitutes for ultrasound imaging. Ultrasound Med Biol. 2010;36(6):861-73. doi: 10.1016/j.ultrasmedbio.2010.02.012.
2. Sinceri S, Condino S, Carbone M. Tips on Ultrasound Phantoms Development for Structured Training. Simul Healthc. 2020. doi: 10.1097/sih.0000000000000421.
3. Zalka L, Köhrer J, Songsaeng C, Homolka P, Kollmann C, Hummel J, et al. Application of additive manufacturing for the adaptive design of ultrasound phantoms. Front Phys. 2025. doi: 10.3389/fphy.2024.1461255.
4. Grebennikova V, Leonov D, Zhou Z, Costa-Júnior J, Shestakova D, Saikia M, et al. Design and validation of a technology for 3D printing training phantoms for ultrasound imaging. Phys Eng Sci Med. 2025. doi: 10.1007/s13246-025-01670-7.
5. Groves L, Keita M, Talla S, Kikinis R, Fichtinger G, Mousavi P, et al. A Review of Low-Cost Ultrasound Compatible Phantoms. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng. 2023;70:3436-3448. doi: 10.1109/tbme.2023.3288071.
6. Seitzinger M, Gnatzy F, Kern S, Steinhausen R, Klammer J, Schlosser T, et al. Development, evaluation, and overview of standardized training phantoms for abdominal ultrasound-guided interventions. Ultraschall Med. 2023. doi: 10.1055/a-2242-7074.
7. Aldehani W, Jawali A, Savaridas S, Huang Z, Manfredi L. Tissue-Mimicking Materials for Breast Ultrasound Elastography Phantoms: A Systematic Review. Polymers. 2025;17. doi: 10.3390/polym17040521.
8. Fernandez S, Kim J, Sadat D, Marcus C, Suh E, Mclntosh R, et al. A Dynamic Ultrasound Phantom with Tissue‐Mimicking Mechanical and Acoustic Properties. Adv Sci. 2024;11. doi: 10.1002/advs.202400271.
9. Leadford B, Guillaumin J, Tanter M, Aubry J, Berthon B. A Novel 3-D Multiparametric Ultrasonic Phantom for Anatomy, Elasticity, Blood Flow and Tissue Orientation Imaging. Ultrasound Med Biol. 2025. doi: 10.1016/j.ultrasmedbio.2025.07.030.
10. Bisht S, Marri B, Karmakar J, Shekhar K. Viscoelastic Characterization of Phantoms for Ultrasound Elastography Created Using Low- and High-Viscosity Poly(vinyl alcohol) with Ethylene Glycol as the Cryoprotectant. ACS Omega. 2024;9:8352-8361. doi: 10.1021/acsomega.3c09224.
11. Sharma A, Marapureddy S, Paul A, Bisht S, Kakkar M, Thareja P, et al. Characterizing Viscoelastic Polyvinyl Alcohol Phantoms for Ultrasound Elastography. Ultrasound Med Biol. 2022. doi: 10.1016/j.ultrasmedbio.2022.09.019.
12. Guo K, Zhu Y, Wang J, Jiang C, Yu J. Characterizing the viscoelastic properties of a tissue mimicking phantom for ultrasound elasticity imaging studies. IOP Conf Ser Mater Sci Eng. 2019;490. doi: 10.1088/1757-899x/490/2/022035.
13. Jawli A, Aldehani W, Nabi G, Huang Z. Tissue-Mimicking Material Fabrication and Properties for Multiparametric Ultrasound Phantoms: A Systematic Review. Bioengineering. 2024;11. doi: 10.3390/bioengineering11060620.
14. Xie P, Wang M, Guo Y, Wen H, Chen X, Chen S, et al. Temperature dependent of viscoelasticity measurement on fat emulsion phantom using acoustic radiation force elasticity imaging method. Technol Health Care. 2018;26:449-458. doi: 10.3233/thc-174746.
15. Fernandes N, Alves D, Ferreira D, Monteiro M, Arieira A, Silva F, et al. Sustainable Tunable Anisotropic Ultrasound Medical Phantoms for Skin, Skeletal Muscle, and Other Fibrous Biological Tissues Using Natural Fibers and a Bio-Elastomeric Matrix. J Compos Sci. 2025;9. doi: 10.3390/jcs9070370.
16. Pepley D, Sonntag C, Prabhu R, Yovanoff M, Han D, Miller S, et al. Building Ultrasound Phantoms With Modified Polyvinyl Chloride: A Comparison of Needle Insertion Forces and Sonographic Appearance With Commercial and Traditional Simulation Materials. Simul Healthc. 2018;13:149–153. doi: 10.1097/sih.0000000000000302.
17. Jafary R, Armstrong S, Byrne T, Stephens A, Pellegrino V, Gregory S. Fabrication and Characterization of Tissue-Mimicking Phantoms for Ultrasound-Guided Cannulation Training. ASAIO J. 2021;68:940-948. doi: 10.1097/mat.0000000000001593.
18. Dahmani J, Laporte C, Pereira D, Bélanger P, Petit Y. Predictive Model for Designing Soft-Tissue Mimicking Ultrasound Phantoms With Adjustable Elasticity. IEEE Trans Ultrason Ferroelectr Freq Control. 2019;67:715-726. doi: 10.1109/tuffc.2019.2953190.
19. Badawe H, Raad P, Khraiche M. High-resolution acoustic mapping of tunable gelatin-based phantoms for ultrasound tissue characterization. Front Bioeng Biotechnol. 2024;12. doi: 10.3389/fbioe.2024.1276143.
20. Giannotti E, Jethwa K, Closs S, Sun R, Bhatti H, James J, et al. Promoting simulation-based training in radiology: a homemade phantom for the practice of ultrasound-guided procedures. Br J Radiol. 2022;95. doi: 10.1259/bjr.20220354.
21. Armstrong S, Jafary R, Forsythe J, Gregory S. Tissue-Mimicking Materials for Ultrasound-Guided Needle Intervention Phantoms: A Comprehensive Review. Ultrasound Med Biol. 2022. doi: 10.1016/j.ultrasmedbio.2022.07.016.
22. Arteaga-Marrero N, Villa E, González A, Gil M, Fernández O, Ruiz-Alzola J, et al. Low-Cost Pseudo-Anthropomorphic PVA-C and Cellulose Lung Phantom for Ultrasound-Guided Interventions. Gels. 2023;9. doi: 10.3390/gels9020074.
23. Maneas E, Xia W, Nikitichev D, Daher B, Manimaran M, Wong R, et al. Anatomically realistic ultrasound phantoms using gel wax with 3D printed moulds. Phys Med Biol. 2018;63. doi: 10.1088/1361-6560/aa9e2c.
24. Pacioni A, Carbone M, Freschi C, Viglialoro R, Ferrari V, Ferrari M. Patient-specific ultrasound liver phantom: materials and fabrication method. Int J Comput Assist Radiol Surg. 2015;10:1065-1075. doi: 10.1007/s11548-014-1120-y.
25. S. R. Bisht, B. P. Marri, J. Karmakar, and K. P. M. Shekhar, “Viscoelastic Characterization of Phantoms for Ultrasound Elastography Created Using Low- and High-Viscosity Poly(vinyl alcohol) with Ethylene Glycol as the Cryoprotectant,” 2024, doi: 10.1021/acsomega.3c09224.
26. L. Lee, Amy E.; Munoz, Eliana; Al Dabbous, Tala; Harris, Elisabeth; O’Callaghan, Maura; Raman, “Extracorporeal Life Support Organization Guidelines for the Provision and Assessment of Nutritional Support in the Neonatal and Pediatric ECMO Patient,” pp. 875–880, 2022, doi: 10.1097/MAT.0000000000001767.
27. A. Jawli, W. Aldehani, and G. Nabi, “Tissue-Mimicking Material Fabrication and Properties for Multiparametric Ultrasound Phantoms : A Systematic Review,” 2024.
28. P. Xie, M. Wang, Y. Guo, H. Wen, X. Chen, and S. Chen, “Temperature dependent of viscoelasticity measurement on fat emulsion phantom using acoustic radiation force elasticity imaging method,” vol. 26, pp. 449–458, 2018, doi: 10.3233/THC-174746.
29. E. Maneas, W. Xia, D. I. Nikitichev, B. Daher, and M. Manimaran, “Anatomically realistic ultrasound phantoms using gel wax with 3D printed moulds Anatomically realistic ultrasound phantoms using gel wax with 3D printed moulds,” 2018.
30. N. A. T. C. Fernandes et al., “Sustainable Tunable Anisotropic Ultrasound Medical Phantoms for Skin , Skeletal Muscle , and Other Fibrous Biological Tissues Using Natural Fibers and a Bio-Elastomeric Matrix,” pp. 1–31, 2025.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 MEDIKA TRADA
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
